Chapter 4. Thinkers, Beliefs And Buildings Cultural Developments (C. 600 Bce - 600 Ce)

This chapter explores cultural developments from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE, a period marked by the rise of influential philosophers and the evolution of new ideas, beliefs, and practices. Their philosophies were transmitted through oral and written texts and expressed through architecture and sculpture, indicating their lasting impact.

While focusing on Buddhism, it's important to recognize that it developed within a context of diverse traditions, including Jaina and Brahmanical traditions, which engaged in ongoing debates and dialogues.

Historians reconstruct this era of ideas and beliefs using sources such as texts (Buddhist, Jaina, Brahmanical), monuments, and inscriptions. The stupa at Sanchi, one of the best-preserved monuments from this time, is a major focus.

A Glimpse Of Sanchi

Sanchi, located near Bhopal, contains significant ancient Buddhist structures, notably a large stupa complex on a hilltop. In the 19th century, European scholars like Major Alexander Cunningham showed great interest in the site, documenting its ruins, sculptures, and inscriptions.

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European powers, like the French and English, sought to remove the best-preserved gateway (the eastern one) for display in museums abroad. Fortunately, rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum, wisely provided funds for the preservation of Sanchi and were satisfied with plaster-cast copies, ensuring the original structures remained at the site.

Sultan Jehan Begum's funding for the museum, guesthouse, and publication of John Marshall's work on Sanchi played a crucial role in its preservation. Sanchi's survival, also aided by luck in escaping destruction by builders, transformed understanding of early Buddhism and stands today as a testament to successful archaeological restoration and preservation efforts by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Understanding the significance of Sanchi requires combining information from various sources – texts, sculpture, architecture, and inscriptions.

The Background: Sacrifices And Debates

The mid-first millennium BCE (around 600 BCE) is considered a pivotal period in world history due to the emergence of influential thinkers across different cultures who explored existential mysteries and the relationship between humans and the cosmos. In India, this era saw figures like Mahavira and Gautama Buddha, alongside the development of new kingdoms, cities, and changes in social and economic life (Chapters 2 & 3).

The Sacrificial Tradition

Pre-existing traditions of thought and practice included the early Vedic tradition, based on the Rigveda (compiled c. 1500-1000 BCE). The Rigveda contains hymns praising deities (Agni, Indra, Soma), chanted during sacrifices where people prayed for material prosperity (cattle, sons), health, and long life.

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Initially, sacrifices were communal. Later (c. 1000-500 BCE), some were performed by heads of households for domestic well-being. Elaborate sacrifices like the rajasuya and ashvamedha were conducted by chiefs and kings, requiring Brahmanical priests to perform the rituals.

New Questions

Texts like the Upanishads (c. 6th century BCE onwards) reveal that people were increasingly curious about philosophical questions: the meaning of life, life after death, rebirth (karma), and the nature of ultimate reality. Some traditions outside the Vedic framework even questioned the existence of a single ultimate reality. The significance of the sacrificial tradition itself also became subject to speculation.

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Debates And Discussions

Buddhist texts provide glimpses of the vibrant intellectual environment of the time, mentioning 64 different sects or schools of thought engaged in debates. Teachers traveled widely, using reason and persuasion to promote their philosophies in places like kutagarashalas (huts with pointed roofs) or groves where mendicants gathered. Success in debates could attract followers from rival sects.

Many teachers, including Mahavira and the Buddha, questioned the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmanical prescriptions of the varna system. They emphasized individual agency, suggesting that people could strive for liberation through their own efforts, regardless of birth or caste, contrasting with the Brahmanical view of determined existence.

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Preparation and Preservation of Buddhist Texts: The Buddha (and other teachers) taught orally through discussion. Teachings were compiled by disciples after the Buddha's death at councils of senior monks. These compilations formed the Tipitaka (Three Baskets): Vinaya Pitaka (monastic rules), Sutta Pitaka (Buddha's teachings), and Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophical matters). Initially transmitted orally, they were later written down in various languages (Pali, Sanskrit) and classified. Commentaries were written by scholars. As Buddhism spread, regional texts (Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa in Sri Lanka) and biographies of the Buddha were composed. Pilgrims (Fa Xian, Xuan Zang from China) and teachers traveled across Asia, seeking and disseminating texts, which were preserved in monasteries and translated.

Beyond Worldly Pleasures The Message Of Mahavira

The core philosophy of Jainism existed before Vardhamana, known as Mahavira (c. 6th century BCE), who is considered the 24th tirthankara (guide across the river of existence) in Jaina tradition.

Key ideas in Jainism:

• The entire world is animated, possessing life (even stones, rocks, water).
• Central principle is non-injury (ahimsa) to all living beings (humans, animals, plants, insects). Ahimsa has profoundly influenced Indian thought.
• The cycle of birth and rebirth is determined by karma.
• Liberation from karma requires asceticism and penance.
• Salvation is achieved only by renouncing the world; monastic life is necessary.

Jaina monks and nuns take five vows: abstaining from killing, stealing, and lying; observing celibacy; and abstaining from possessing property.

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The Spread Of Jainism

Jainism gradually spread across India. Jaina scholars created extensive literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil, which was preserved in temple libraries. Some of the earliest stone sculptures of religious figures are associated with Jaina tirthankaras.

The Buddha And The Quest For Enlightenment

Gautama Buddha was another highly influential teacher of this period. His message spread widely, across India and into other parts of Asia.

Knowledge of the Buddha's teachings comes from Buddhist texts (edited, translated, analyzed) and hagiographies (biographies of saints/religious leaders), which were written down centuries after his time to preserve memories and often emphasize his achievements (may not be strictly literal).

According to tradition, Siddhartha (his birth name) was son of a chief of the Sakya clan. His privileged upbringing shielded him from suffering until he encountered an old man, a sick man, and a corpse during a journey, revealing the inevitability of decay and death. Seeing a mendicant who seemed to have found peace inspired him to seek his own truth.

Siddhartha left his palace, explored extreme asceticism (leading to near death), and finally attained enlightenment through meditation. After this, he became known as the Buddha (the Enlightened One).

For the rest of his life, he taught Dhamma (the path of righteous living).

The Teachings Of The Buddha

The Buddha's teachings are primarily reconstructed from stories in the Sutta Pitaka. While some stories mention miraculous powers, many emphasize his use of reason and persuasion, such as convincing a grieving mother about the universality of death.

Teachings were given in the language of ordinary people for accessibility.

Key tenets of Buddhist philosophy:

• The world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing.
• It is soulless (anatta); nothing is permanent or eternal.
• Suffering (dukkha) is inherent to human existence in this transient world.
• Liberation from suffering is possible by following a path of moderation between extreme asceticism and self-indulgence.
• In early Buddhism, the existence of god was considered irrelevant.

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The Buddha viewed the social world as a human construct, not divinely created, and advised rulers and householders to be humane and ethical. Individual effort was key to transforming social relations.

Individual agency and righteous actions were emphasized as the means to escape rebirth, attain self-realization, and reach nibbana (extinguishing ego and desire), ending suffering for those who renounced the world. His final words urged followers to rely on themselves ("Be lamps unto yourselves").

Followers Of The Buddha

The Buddha's teachings attracted disciples, leading to the formation of the sangha, an organization of monks who became teachers of Dhamma. Monks (bhikkhus) lived simply, relying on alms received in a bowl from the laity (those who had not renounced worldly life).

Initially, only men were admitted to the sangha. Later, women were also allowed, reportedly through the efforts of Ananda, a disciple. The Buddha's foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, was the first woman ordained as a bhikkhuni (nun). Many women in the sangha became Dhamma teachers and were respected as theris (women who attained liberation).

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Followers came from diverse social backgrounds (kings, wealthy, laborers, slaves, craftspeople). Within the sangha, all were considered equal, shedding previous social identities.

Sangha functioning was based on consensus through discussion, similar to ganas and sanghas (oligarchies). Decisions were made by vote if consensus failed.

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Buddhism grew rapidly due to dissatisfaction with existing practices and social changes. Its appeal lay in emphasizing conduct/values over birth status, promoting fellow feeling (metta) and compassion (karuna).

Stupas

Sacred places in early traditions often included sites with special trees, rocks, or natural beauty (chaityas). Buddhist literature mentions several chaityas and places associated with the Buddha's life (birth, enlightenment, first sermon, nibbana), which became sacred.

Stupas were also regarded as sacred sites because they contained relics of the Buddha (bodily remains, objects he used), buried in mounds. While stupa erection may predate Buddhism, they became strongly associated with it, venerated as emblems of the Buddha and Buddhism.

Why Were Stupas Built

According to the Ashokavadana text, Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha's relics to important towns and ordered stupas built over them. By the 2nd century BCE, many stupas, including those at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Sarnath, were constructed.

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How Were Stupas Built

Inscriptions found on stupa railings and pillars record donations for their construction and decoration. Donors included kings (like the Satavahanas), guilds (like ivory workers at Sanchi), and numerous individuals (men and women) who mentioned their names, origins, occupations, and relatives. Monks and nuns also contributed.

These inscriptions are invaluable for understanding who contributed to building these monuments and the diverse social backgrounds of Buddhist followers.

The Structure Of The Stupa

The stupa evolved from a simple semi-circular mound (anda, meaning heap) to a more complex structure. Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony-like structure symbolizing the gods' abode. A mast (yashti) rose from the harmika, topped by an umbrella (chhatri).

A railing surrounded the mound, separating the sacred space. Early stupas (Sanchi, Bharhut) were plain mounds with carved railings and gateways (at cardinal points). Later stupas (Amaravati) had elaborately carved mounds.

Worshippers typically entered through the eastern gateway and walked around the stupa clockwise (pradakshina), following the sun's course.

“Discovering” Stupas

Each stupa has its own history of construction and, often, rediscovery in modern times. The fate of stupas like Amaravati and Sanchi illustrates different outcomes upon discovery.

In 1796, the stupa at Amaravati was discovered by a local raja who dismantled it for stone. Years later, British officials like Colin Mackenzie and Walter Elliot visited, collected sculptures ("Elliot marbles"), and shipped them to Madras and London. Despite some voices advocating for preserving sculptures in situ (on the spot), like H.H. Cole (who succeeded in Sanchi), authorities continued removing artefacts, leaving Amaravati as an insignificant mound stripped of its sculptures.

Sanchi, discovered in 1818, was in better condition with gateways still standing. Although there were proposals to take its gateways to Europe, various factors, including perhaps H.H. Cole's advocacy for in situ preservation, helped keep the structures at the site. Unlike Amaravati, Sanchi survived largely intact.

The difference in their fate might be due to Amaravati being discovered before the value of such finds was fully appreciated and before policies for preserving originals at the site were adopted.

Sculpture

Sculptures found on stupas, particularly on the gateways, provide rich visual information. They were removed to Europe partly because they were seen as beautiful and valuable art pieces.

Stories In Stone

Sculptures at Sanchi often depict stories. Art historians identify these by comparing them with textual traditions, particularly Jataka stories (tales of the Buddha's previous lives). Like traveling storytellers using picture scrolls, the sculptures visually narrate these tales.

Fig 4.13, depicting a rural scene, is identified as the Vessantara Jataka, about a prince who gave away everything. This shows how understanding sculptures requires familiarity with associated texts.

Symbols Of Worship

Early Buddhist sculptors often did not show the Buddha in human form but represented his presence through symbols. Art historians learned to interpret these symbols by studying Buddha's hagiographies.

Common symbols and their meanings:

• Empty seat (Fig 4.14): Symbolizes the Buddha's meditation leading to enlightenment.
• Stupa (Fig 4.15): Represents the Buddha's mahaparinibbana (final passing away).
• Wheel (Fig 4.16): Represents the Buddha's first sermon (Dharmachakra Pravartana - setting in motion the wheel of dharma) at Sarnath.

Understanding these sculptures requires interpreting symbols in their specific religious context; a tree might symbolize the Bodhi tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment, not just any tree. Historians must be familiar with the traditions of those who created this art.

Popular Traditions

Some sculptures at Sanchi may reflect popular beliefs and practices that existed before or alongside Buddhism. The motif of a woman swinging from a tree, holding onto a branch (Fig 4.17), initially puzzled scholars as it didn't seem directly Buddhist.

Upon examining other literary traditions (like Sanskrit texts), they identified her as a shalabhanjika, a woman whose touch causes trees to flower and bear fruit. This was likely an auspicious symbol integrated into the stupa decoration. The presence of such motifs suggests that people bringing their pre-Buddhist or non-Buddhist beliefs also contributed to and enriched Buddhism.

Other recurrent motifs at Sanchi, like animals (elephants, horses, monkeys, cattle), may also derive from popular traditions. While some animals appear in Jataka stories depicted, many were likely carved for their lively representation or as symbols of human attributes (e.g., elephants for strength and wisdom).

Another motif is a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants sprinkling water (Fig 4.19), possibly representing an abhisheka (consecration). This figure has been interpreted as either Maya (Buddha's mother) or Gajalakshmi (goddess of good fortune associated with elephants), indicating that viewers might have identified her with both.

The serpent motif (Fig 4.21) on pillars at Sanchi also seems rooted in popular traditions not always recorded in texts. Early art historian James Fergusson interpreted Sanchi as a centre of tree and serpent worship based on these images, unaware of specific Buddhist literature.

New Religious Traditions

From the first century CE, Buddhist ideas and practices evolved, leading to new traditions. Simultaneously, within what is now called Hinduism, similar developments occurred, with emphasis on devotional worship of chosen deities.

The Development Of Mahayana Buddhism

Early Buddhism focused on individual effort for nibbana, viewing the Buddha as a human who achieved enlightenment. Gradually, the idea of a saviour emerged, believed to ensure salvation. The concept of Bodhisattas developed – compassionate beings accumulating merit to help others achieve liberation rather than solely seeking their own nibbana.

Worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became central to this new tradition, called Mahayana ("great vehicle"). The older tradition was labeled Hinayana ("lesser vehicle") by Mahayana followers, while followers of the older tradition called themselves Theravadins (followers of the old teachers).

The Growth Of Puranic Hinduism

Similar ideas of a saviour emerged in traditions that became part of Hinduism, including Vaishnavism (Vishnu as principal deity) and Shaivism (Shiva as principal deity). Emphasis grew on devotional worship (bhakti), visualising a bond of love between devotee and deity.

• Vaishnavism: Cults developed around Vishnu's various avatars (incarnations assumed to save the world). Ten avatars were recognized. Identifying local deities as forms of Vishnu helped unify the tradition.
• Shaivism: Shiva was often symbolized by the linga, but also represented in human form.

Sculptures of deities depicted complex ideas through symbols (headdresses, ornaments, ayudhas/weapons/auspicious objects, seating posture). Understanding these requires familiarity with the stories from the Puranas (compiled by Brahmanas, c. mid-1st millennium CE), which contain tales about gods and goddesses.

Puranas were written in simple Sanskrit verse and intended for wide audience, including women and Shudras, who couldn't access Vedic learning.

Puranic Hinduism evolved through interactions among various people sharing ideas. For example, Vasudeva-Krishna worship spread from Mathura to other parts of the country.

Building Temples

Around the same time stupas were developing, the first Hindu temples to house deity images were built. Early temples were small square rooms (garbhagriha, central shrine) with a single doorway.

Gradually, a tall structure (shikhara) was added over the garbhagriha. Temple walls were often decorated with sculpture. Later temples became more elaborate with assembly halls, large walls, gateways, and water arrangements (Chapter 7).

A unique feature of early temples was carving some out of huge rocks as artificial caves. This tradition was old, dating back to the 3rd century BCE when Asoka ordered caves for Ajivika renouncers (Fig 4.27). It culminated in the 8th century with the carving of the entire Kailashnatha Temple at Ellora from a single rock (Fig 4.28).

Can We “See” Everything?

Past visual traditions (architecture, sculpture, painting) reveal much despite loss over centuries. Remaining works show the artists' vision. However, do we fully understand their intended meaning? Can we know what these images meant to ancient viewers?

Grappling With The Unfamiliar

19th-century European scholars initially struggled to understand Indian sculptures, sometimes finding multi-limbed or human-animal forms "grotesque." They compared Indian sculpture to familiar Greek art. They often judged early Indian sculpture as inferior to Greek works but were excited by Buddha/Bodhisatta images based on Greek models (found in northwest, where Indo-Greek rulers existed). These were seen as "best" examples of early Indian art because they were closest to Greek statues. This highlights a common strategy: using the familiar as a yardstick for the unfamiliar.

If Text And Image Do Not Match …

Historians use texts to understand sculptures, which is more effective than comparing with unrelated art. However, sometimes text and image don't match. A famous sculpture at Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu) is an intriguing example (Fig 4.30). Art historians are divided on which story it depicts – some say descent of Ganga (natural cleft represents river), others say Arjuna doing penance (central ascetic figure). This shows interpretation difficulties.

Finally, many religious rituals, beliefs, and practices were not recorded in permanent forms (monuments, sculpture, painting). Daily practices and special occasion rituals might not have left lasting records, even if vibrant traditions existed. The spectacular examples we study are just a small part of the past religious landscape.